What is Kumina ?

Kumina is a traditional Jamaican folk form involving dance, music and religious practices and beliefs. As is the case with many African retentive folk forms that emerged throughout the Diaspora where Africans were relocated during and after slavery, Kumina represents an adaptation of African religious and secular beliefs, behaviors and practices during the indigenization process.

For the early practitioners, the playing of the drums, a central feature of Kumina, may have been a means of "flying back to Africa"; keeping in touch with their roots, or using that which was familiar for comfort in an alien environment. Kumina "plays", as they are referred to, are of two forms - "Bailo" and "Country". Bailo is the more public and less sacred while Country is the more African and 'serious' form. Plays vary in length 1-3 days or more, depending on the reason for which they are being held. Kumina plays are primarily performed for funerals, memorials and entombments. Other occassions for its use include births, weddings, thanksgiving, national holidays, healing, protection and the dispensation of justice.The focus at all times is the envoking of ancestral spirits.
Found primarily in the Jamaican parish of Saint Thomas and to a lesser extent in Saint Mary, Portland, Kingston and Saint Catherine, Kumina provided social cohesion for its early practitioners, and it has given contemporary Jamaicans glimpses of their rich cultural heritage.
The exact date of Kumina's emergence in Jamaica is unclear. However, it is believed to have been in existence during the eighteen century and further developed during the mid-to-late nineteenth century with the arrival of indentured Africans to augment Jamaica's failing plantation economy. Several historians have cited Kongolese as the primary source of the language, music and religious practices found in Kumina. Historical records confirm the dominance of Central African settlers in the parish of Saint Thomas during this period. Many Kumina practitioners acknowledge their direct Kongo descent. They cite their origin as belonging to the "Bongo Nation", and use such terms as "Country", "African" or "Kongo language" when referring to the language used in their rituals.
The language used in Kumina rituals for singing and communication with ancestors, as well as with each other, is heavily influenced by Kikongo in grammar and vocabulary. For example, the Kikongo word "kumu" means meter, melody , rhythm ,or to play a musical instrument, and is used similarly by Kumina practitioners. Another example is the word "kumuni", a compound of "kumu", which refers to a traditional dance-music found amongst the Bakongo peoples from the old Kingdom of Kongo. Note the similarity to the Jamaican word "kumina".
The integral part played by ancestors in the religious beliefs and practices of Kumina practitioners, offers another example of Kumina's Kongo-based origin. Although the argument can be presented that drumming, singing and dancing is atypical of all African regions, the fact that Kumina drummers sit astride their drums when playing, and the similarity between Kumina drum music and that of their Central Africa counterparts, lends further support to the belief that Kumina's roots are primarily Kikongo (Bakongo) in origin. Click on the picture below to hear a sample of Kongolese drumming. The role of drumming, singing and dancing in the lives of Kumina practitioners is reflected in statement made by Fu-Kiau, a Bakongo scholar cited in C. Daniel Dawson's "Treasure in the Terror: The African Cultural Legacy in the Americas."

Kumina: An Indigenous Religious Form

Kumina is an Afro-Jamaican religious belief system and practice. The movement took form particularly in the 1850s with the influx of African indentured immigrants from the Congo region of Central Africa during the immediate post-emancipation period. Kumina evolved strongest in St. Thomas where it is said that a large percentage of the immigrants settled. However over the years and through migration the practice has spread to areas in Kingston, St. Catherine, St. Mary and Portland.
The most significant aspect of Kumina involves the ceremony, which invokes communication with ancestral spirits and incorporates singing, dancing, music and sacrificial offerings.

The music is created by the use of the drums - the Kbandu and the Playing Cast, which are played astride and accompanied by shakas, graters and catta sticks. The music accompanies singing, which holds different degrees of significance for Kumina ceremonies. Bailo are songs in Jamaican creole it is the less sacred, aspects of Kumina ceremonies, while Country involves the use of the Ki-kongo language and for communicating with the spirits to give them support to take over the bodies of devotees. Dancing completes the ritual and involves movement with an erect back posture in a circular pattern anti-clockwise, around the drummers, gyrating hips as the feet inch along the ground.

The combination of singing, dancing and music often create an environment conducive to spiritual possession, a significant phenomenon in Kumina, known as Mayal. This is when the spirit of the Gods, sky, earth-bound and ancestral spirits takes control of the dancer’s body causing them to become an instrument through which the spirit world communicates with the earthly domain. In this state the dancer looses control of his/her own speech and movement and can appear to be in a trance.

A Kumina table is another important part of the Kumina ceremony and consists of a number of items used to satisfy and honour the spirits. Water, sugared water, wine, rice, rum, flowers, fruits, cake, bread candles, bottles of aerated drink are often present. Candles of various colours such as blue, white, green, red, black are used to symbolize different occasions and to invite spirits in personal and mutual circumstances. During ceremonies when interaction with the spirit takes place, animal sacrifices are usually made.
Kumina ceremonies are held for different reasons - surrounding the death of a person, tombing, weddings, and anniversaries, to drive out evil spirits from those possessed, to ask for advice in important matters, for healing and to free individuals from evil spells. Ceremonies can also be held for persons who seek help in problems and need guidance. In most cases a table is raised and a feast is prepared to provide food and treats for the spirit and for the people attending the ceremony.

KUMINA IN JAMAICA

Kumina is described as one of the most African religious expressions in Jamaica. Standing the test of time, Kumina has managed to survive the influences of Western culture. The language and the dances of Kumina are so undiluted that they can be traced back to tribes in the Congo in Africa.

In this photo the all female Kumina group of Port Morant, St. Thomas perform in 2006.

The influences that shaped Kumina landed in the 1850s with the arrival of African indentured immigrants from the Congo region of Central Africa during the immediate post-emancipation period. Kumina took root in St. Thomas where a large number of the immigrants settled. However, the religious spread to the parishes of Portland, St. Mary, St. Catherine and Kingston.

Kumina rituals are usually associated with wakes, burials or memorial services, but can be performed for a whole range of human experiences. Kumina dances are used when help is needed to win a court case or for winning a lover.

The dances associated with Kumina are also viewed as an intrinsically Jamaican art form and are performed for entertainment value by several Kumina groups and even the distinguished National Dance Theatre Company.

However, Kumina is sometimes viewed with suspicion as a form of witchcraft or “bad obeah” because of the trance-like state some of the participants fall into during the ceremonies. Those that are more informed about the religious expression have rubbished these superstitions but have warned against misuse of Kumina rituals.

In this excerpt from an article in The Gleaner, a reporter speaks to the leader of a Kumina group in St. Thomas:

“When asked if the members practised obeah, Ephraim Bartley, the group's leader gave an emphatic "No". Obeah, he says is always for bad, while Kumina, despite being sometimes used for bad, is always meant for good.

According to the leader, persons have been healed and there are even some who have been raised from the dead.”

THE KINGS AND QUEENS OF KUMINA

Both men and women are able to assume leadership of a Kumina sect. The men are called ‘King’ or ‘Captain’, while the women are referred to as ‘Queen’ or ‘Mother/Madda’. The leaders must be able to control zombies or spirits and assume leadership after careful training in the feeding habits, ritual procedures, dances, rhythms, and songs of a variety of spirits, from their predecessor.

Renowned 'Kumina Queen' Bernyce Henry balances a lit candle on a tin as she leads the Port Morant National and International Kumina Dancers at 'Falla Backa Mi' in 2005.

PERFORMANCE AND POSSESSION IN KUMINA

One of the distinct features of Kumina is the prominence of dance and ritual as a form of religious and cultural expression.

Dance and rituals are used to invoke communication with the ancestral spirits. The rituals involve singing, dancing, music and sacrificial offerings. All of these are used to create an atmosphere favorable for spiritual possession, known as ‘Mayal’.

One is said to "catch ‘Myal’" when possessed by one of the three classes of gods- sky, earthbound, and ancestral zombies- the last being the most common form of possession. Each god can be recognized by the particular dance style exhibited by the possessed, and by songs and drum rhythms to which it responds.

SOUNDS OF KUMINA

Instruments

The captivating sounds of Kumina emanates from several rudiment instruments, some that were transplanted from the Congo and others that were repurposed for these ceremonies. Here is a list of the instruments and songs used in Kumina ceremonies:

Kbandu (battery of drums)

Larger and lower pitched drums, on which the rhythm is played with emphasis on the first and third beats.

Playing Cast or lead drums

The most complicated and specific ‘spirit’ basic rhythms are played on this set of drums. The drummers on the Playing Cast are respected as they must be knowledgeable and competent in playing the variety of rhythms which invoke, repel, and control the many spirits or deities.

Scrapers

An ordinary grater that is used as an instrument.

Shakas

A gourd or tin can rattles.

Catta Sticks

Used by the 'rackling men' to keep up a steady rhythm on the body of the drum behind the drummer.

Songs

Singing is a critical part of Kumina ceremonies and is divided into two types, Bailo and Country.

Bailo are songs in Jamaican creole and are less sacred, these songs are used for performances and exhibitions. On the other hand, Country involves the use of the Ki-Kongo language and is used to communicate with the spirits during mayal.

The Queen engages in call and response with the King/Captain, singing of both Bailo and Country songs. Call and response means one line or verse is "raised" or sung then repeated by others in response.

In Edward Kamau Brathwaite’s examination of Kumina in the Jamaica Journal, he says that persons who perform Kumina for entertainment purposes are warned against using particular drums. It is also recommended that certain words in the songs be changed.

Regarding the Ki-Kongo language, in the mid 1950’s Edward Seaga in the course of completing a research project submitted 48 words from Kumina Country songs to The School of Oriental and African Studies in London. Forty-one of those words were identified as Congolese.

Dances

An article from the Jamaica Journal outlines what happens at a Bailo dance:

“At Bailo dances, the spirits who are called make their presence known by ‘mounting’ or possessing a dancer; whose given dance style helps in identifying the spirit, but can span all possibilities of movement.

The basic dance posture constitutes an almost erect back and propelling actions of the hips as the feet inch along the ground. The dancers move in a circular pattern around the musicians and centre pole, either singly or with a partner.

The arms, shoulders, rib cage, and hips are employed, offering the dancers ample opportunity for variations and interpretation of the counter-beats or poly-rhythms. Spins, dips, and ‘breaks’ on the last beat are common dance variations.”

Kumina

Kumina is the most African of the cults to be found in Jamaica, with negligible European or Christian influence. Linguistic evidence cites the Kongo as a specific ethnic source for the ‘language’ and possibly the music of Kumina. There are varying theories as to whether it was brought with late African arrivals after Emancipation, or whether it was rooted in Jamaica from the 18th century, and deepened by the later African influence.

The cult is to be found primarily in St. Thomas and Portland and to a lesser extent in St. Mary, St. Catherine and Kingston. Kumina ceremonies are usually associated with wakes, entombments or memorial services, but can be performed for a whole range of human experiences (births thanksgivings, invocations for good and evil).

Kumina sessions involve singing, dancing and drumming and are of two general types: bailo the more public and less sacred form of Kumina, at which time songs are sung mainly in Jamaican dialect; and country-the more African and serious form, and at which time possession usually occurs.

Male and female leaders must exhibit great deal of strength in their control of zombies or spirits and assume their positions of leadership after careful training in the feeding habits, ritual procedures, dances, rhythms, and songs of a variety of spirits, by a previous King or ‘Captain’ and Queen, or ‘Mother’.

One is said to catch ‘Myal’ when possessed by one of the three classes of Gods-sky, earthbound, and ancestral zombies, these last being the most common form of possession. Each god can be recognized by the initiated by the particular dance style exhibited by the possessed, and by songs and drum rhythms to which it responds.

The two drums used are the Kbandu and the Playing Cast. The Kbandu (battery of drums), larger and lower pitched, on which the rhythm is played with emphasis on the first and third beats; and the Playing Cast or treble (lead drum, on which the most complicated and specific ‘spirit’ basic rhythms are played. In the centre is a bottle of rum used to anoint the players and instruments, which is usually done with an incantation before the ceremony. The drummers on the Playing Cast is afforded much respect with the cult since he must be both knowledgeable and competent in playing the variety of rhythms which invoke, repel, and control the many spirits or deities. The Queen plays a similar role in her selection of songs and often engages in call and response (with the King/Captain) type singing of both bailo and country country songs.

Other instruments employed at dance music sessions include Scrapers (which can be an ordinary grater), Shakas, gourd or tin can rattles, and Catta Sticks which keep up a steady rhythm on the back of the drum or on the centre pole of the dancing booth. The drummer sits on the body of the drum while a player behind uses the Catta Sticks (c.f. expression ‘Catta Sticks’). Hand clapping often accompanies the ‘Catta Sticks’. The group heard in the first selection, who consider themselves the most authentic, also use a gourd which they blow across and a bamboo stamping tube.

At Bailo dances, the spirits who are called, more often than not make their presence known by ‘mounting’ (i.e. possessing) a dancer; whose given dance style helps in identifying the spirit, but can span all possibilities of movement. The basic dance posture constitutes an almost erect back and propelling actions of the hips as the feet inch along the ground. The dancers move in a circular pattern around the musicians and centre pole, either singly or with a partner. The arms, shoulders, rib cage, and hips are employed, offering the dancers ample opportunity for variations and interpretation of the counter-beats or poly-rhythms. Spins, dips, and ‘breaks’ on the last beat are common dance variations.

The journey of the spirits from the ethereal to the mundane world is no less ritualized than other Kumina elements. Once invoked by music and other ritual paraphernalia (rum with blood, candles, leaves) the spirits are said to hover near the dancing booth. If successfully enticed they travel down the centre pole into the ground, then through the open end of the drum to the head of the drum, where the drummer and Queen must salute its presence. The spirit then re-enters the ground, from where it will travel up the feet of the person selected to be possessed, along the whole length of the body, culminating with full Myal possession in the head of the individual.

Kumina: An Indigenous Religious Form

The most significant aspect of Kumina involves the ceremony, which invokes communication with ancestral spirits and incorporates singing, dancing, music and sacrificial offerings.

Kumina ceremonies are held for different reasons - surrounding the death of a person, tombing, weddings, and anniversaries, to drive out evil spirits from those possessed, to ask for advice in important matters, for healing and to free individuals from evil spells. Ceremonies can also be held for persons who seek help in problems and need guidance. In most cases a table is raised and a feast is prepared to provide food and treats for the spirit and for the people attending the ceremony.

KUMINA

THE SHACKLES of slavery were broken almost a century ago, but the memories of sweet freedom is alive today in the rich culture of the "Kumina people".

In a recent interview with The Gleaner, Wesley Campbell, 65, explains that Kumina refers to the music and lifestyle of the Guinness tribe. Taken from the Gold Coast, these people were among the tribes captured and enslaved. In Jamaica, the Guinness tribe can be recognised by their language.

Mr. Campbell, says the history of the Guinness slaves celebrating freedom through Kumina, has been passed down orally through generations. And like him, there are others who celebrate the abolishment of slavery on August 1, as "this is the date we know from our learnt history".

The Kumina group of 17 found in Dalvey, St. Thomas is one of the most prominent groups in Jamaica, second in size only to the St. Catherine Kumina group.

Lead singer Clemento Flemmings, explains that there are two Kuminas. Performance Kumina is done at special events arranged mainly through the Jamaica Cultural Development Commission (JCDC). Then there is the "real Kumina" for the Guinness people.

At the "real Kumina" one can expect just about anything, as one of the aspects of Kumina is "being possessed by the spirits of the dead". Anyone can become possessed and there is no limit as to how many spirits can enter an individual. At this point the possessed person enters into a trance called the Maya.

"There is nothing to fear," says Clement who says Kumina is a religion that uplifts and strengthens participants.

When asked if the members practised obeah, Ephraim Bartley, the group's leader gave an emphatic "No". Obeah, he says is always for bad, while Kumina, despite being sometimes used for bad, is always meant for good.

According to the leader, persons have been healed and there are even some who have been raised from the dead.

Today among the Guinness people are converts to other religions, but the zeal to uphold the tradition of "our roots keep the Guinness people, particularly the Kumina group, bonded."

One of the special memories witnessed is a fat woman who ended up floating in the air and the frightening memories shared, included the head of live fowls being bitten off. This ritual, as explained, is simply to satisfy the craving of the spirit of the dead.

The group members say no one usually drinks the blood, but it is sprinkled on the earth. Mr. Bartley, according to group members, has often walked through fire, while in a Maya.

Both the players of musical instruments and the instruments have to be blessed with white rum prior to the start of a performance.

Queen of Kumina: Imogene Kennedy - 'Queenie' II, St. Thomas, Jamaica [date unknown]

PEOPLE

Imogene Kennedy

Queen of Kumina: Imogene Kennedy - 'Queenie' II [date unknown]

Image from the National Library of Jamaica Photograph Collection. Permission to reproduce this image must be obtained from the National Library of Jamaica

Photograph credit Keith Morrison

Further information - Biography

Imogene Kennedy

Imogene ‘Queenie’ Kennedy was born in Dalvey, St. Thomas sometime, it is believed, in the late 1920s, raised by her mother and grandmother. Her grandmother was an African and it was through her that Queenie was first made aware of her African ancestry and culture.

She was introduced to Kumina by neighbours, Man Parker and his father Ole Parker: “…the most highly respected forebears of the Kumina nation, famous for their deep knowledge of ancestral values and practices.” (Lewin, Olive. Rock It Come Over: p. 259) It was common for Queenie to steal away to the Kumina sessions held next door as her interest increased. Queenie’s ascendance as Kumina Queen was a result of a life-changing experience [The full account can be read in Rock It Come Over by Olive Lewin]. Queenie said that one day, while searching for coconuts in a gully, the spirits took her to a large, hollow cotton tree (In Africa and the West Indies, the cotton tree is seen as the traditional home of spirits). There she spent twenty one days without food or water, communicating with the ancestral spirits who taught her prayers and songs in the African language, Kikongo. From this spiritual experience Queenie emerged as a full African Kumina Queen.

Queenie has received many awards from various organizations at home and abroad including awards from L’Acadco and the Jamaica Folk Singers. She has received several gold medals for traditional dances in Jamaica’s Festival events and, in 1983, she received the Order of Distinction for services in the development of African heritage.

VIDEO OF PEOPLE DANCING KUMINA

RELIGIOUS WIZ

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