Rasta Dress Code

Rastas like to wear clothes made from natural fibres.White is their ceremonial colour.The colours red,green and gold of the Ethiopian National flag predominate in their clothing, rastas do not wear clothes made from animal skin.

Female Dress Code

Rastafarian women must be dressed in long garments with head covered, this is done primarily so that the beauty of their bodies are not "visible" to casual viewers. They do not wear men clothing.

Male Dress Code

Rastafarian men wear clothes look like dresses

Rastafari theology developed from the ideas of Marcus Garvey, a political activist who wanted to improve the status of fellow blacks.
There are approximately one million world wide adherents of Rastafari as a faith. The 2001 census found 5,000 Rastafarians living in England and Wales.
Followers of Rastafari are known by a variety of names: Rastafarians, Rastas, Sufferers, Locksmen, Dreads or Dreadlocks.

It spread globally following the success of Bob Marley and his music in the 1970s
Rastafarians believe that blacks are the chosen people of God, but that through colonisation and the slave trade their role has been suppressed
The movement's greatest concerns are the repatriation of blacks to their homeland, Africa, and the reinstatement of blacks' position in society
It is an exocentric religion - as Haile Selassie, whom adherents consider as God, is outside the religion
Rastafari religious ceremonies consist of chanting, drumming and meditating in order to reach a state of heightened spirituality
Rastafarian religious practice includes the ritual inhalation of marijuana, to increase their spiritual awareness
Rastafarians follow strict dietary laws and abstain from alcohol.
Rastafarians follow a number of Old Testament Laws
There is a separate code of religious practice for women in Rastafari
Rastafarians believe reincarnation follows death and that life is eternal
Rastafarians are forbidden to cut their hair; instead, they grow it and twist it into dreadlocks
Rastafarians eat clean and natural produce, such as fruit and vegetables
Rastafarians try to refrain from the consumption of meat, especially pork
Rastafarians are opposed to abortion and contraception

Rastafarian colours

The Rastafarian colours are red, green and gold. Sometimes black is added. These colours are chosen because:

Red signifies the blood of those killed for the cause of the black community, throughout Jamaican history
Green represents Jamaica's vegetation and hope for the eradication of suppression
Gold symbolises the wealth of Ethiopia
Black signifies the colour of the Africans who initiated Rastafari

The Rastafarian symbol

The lion is the symbol of Rastafari.
This lion represents Haile Selassie I, who is referred to as the 'Conquering Lion of Judah'. Rastafarians' dreadlocks represent the lion's mane.

Rastafarian beliefs

There is no formal Rastafari creed and there are slight differences in the views of different groups.
The most definitive list is found in the 1977 book The Rastafarians, The Dreadlocks of Jamaica by scholar Leonard Barrett who lists what he regards as the six basic principles of Rastafari. He developed the list by attending public meetings and through anthropological research into the movement.

Haile Selassie I is the Living God
The Black person is the reincarnation of ancient Israel, who, at the hand of the White person, has been in exile in Jamaica
The White person is inferior to the Black person
Jamaica is hell; Ethiopia is heaven
The Invincible Emperor of Ethiopia is now arranging for expatriated persons of African origin to return to Ethiopia
In the near future Blacks shall rule the world

But Leonard Barrett's list is itself about thirty years old and so many of the beliefs above may no longer have the same significance to modern Rastafarians. This is especially true since the spread of the movement to the West which has led to the emergence of White Rastafarians.

Early beliefs

The basic tenets of early Rastafari, according to preacher Leonard Howell, included some very strong statements about racial issues, as might be expected in the religion of an oppressed people living in exile:

Hatred of Whites
Superiority of Blacks
- Blacks are God's chosen people
- Blacks will soon rule the world
Revenge on Whites for their wickedness
- Whites will become the servants of Blacks
The negation, persecution and humiliation of the government and legal bodies of Jamaica
Repatriation: Haile Selassie will lead Blacks back to Africa
Acknowledging Emperor Haile Selassie as God, and the ruler of Black people

Modern Rastafarian beliefs

From the 1930s until the mid 1970s most Rastafarians accepted the traditional Rastafari beliefs.
But in 1973 Joseph Owens published a more modern approach to Rastafari beliefs. In 1991 Michael N. Jagessar revised Owens's ideas, devising his own systematic approach to Rastafari theology and providing an insight into the changes in the group's beliefs.
The key ideas in contemporary Rastafari are:

The humanity of God and the divinity of man
- This refers to the importance of Haile Selassie who is perceived by Rastafarians as a living God. Likewise it emphasises the concept of God revealing himself to his followers through his humanity.
God is found within every man
- Rastafarians believe that God makes himself known through humanity. According to Jagessar "there must be one man in whom he exists most eminently and completely, and that is the supreme man, Rastafari, Selassie I."
God in history
- It is very important to see all historical facts in the context of God's judgement and workings.
Salvation on earth
- Salvation for Rastafarians is an earthly idea, rather than heavenly.
The supremacy of life
- Human nature is very important to Rastafarians and they should preserve and protect it.
Respect for nature
- This idea refers to the importance and respect Rastafarians have for animals and the environment, as mirrored in their food laws.
The power of speech
- Speech is very important to Rastafarians, as it enables the presence and power of God to be felt.
Evil is corporate
- Sin is both personal and corporate. This means organisations such as the International Monetary Fund are responsible for Jamaica's fiscal situation, and that oppression is in part influenced by them.
Judgement is near
- This corresponds to the nearness of judgement for Rastafarians when they will be given greater recognition.
The priesthood of Rastafarians
- Rastafarians are the chosen people of God and are on earth to promote his power and peacefulness.

(Joseph Owens The Rastafarians of Jamaica, 1973 pp. 167-70 and Jagessar, JPIC and Rastafarians, 1991 pp. 15-17.)
To modern Rastafari the most important doctrine is belief in the divinity of Haile Selassie I. Although some Rastafarians still regard Haile Selassie as the black messiah, many modern adherents do not see this as central to their faith.
Haile Selassie's death in 1975 was described by his followers as his 'disappearance', since they refused to believe he has passed away. Following his death and the increased acceptance of Jamaican culture in society many Rastafarian beliefs have been modified.
According to Nathaniel Samuel Murrell:

...brethren have reinterpreted the doctrine of repatriation as voluntary migration to Africa, returning to Africa culturally and symbolically, or rejecting Western values and preserving African roots and black pride.
Nathaniel Samuel Murrell in 'Chanting Down Babylon', 1998, page 6.

The previous belief that white people are evil has diminished and is no longer central to Rastafarian belief systems.
The idea of Babylon has also developed to represent all oppressive organisations and countries in the world.

Haile Selassie I - God of the Black race

Haile Selassie
Haile Selassie never regarded himself as God, nor did he adhere to Rastafari.
Rastafarians regard Haile Selassie I as God because Marcus Garvey's prophecy - "Look to Africa where a black king shall be crowned, he shall be the Redeemer" - was swiftly followed by the ascension of Haile Selassie as Emperor of Ethiopia.
Haile Selassie I is regarded by Rastafarians as the God of the Black race.
This is supported by the Rastafarian idea that God himself is black, a claim backed by this Biblical text:

For the hurt of the daughter of my people am I hurt; I am black; as astonishment hath taken hold of me.
Jeremiah 8:21

Justifications for the divinity of Haile Selassie

Rastafarians use Biblical names such as Lord of Lords, King of Kings and Conquering Lion of the tribe of Judah for Haile Selassie. These terms had been used throughout history to describe Ethiopian Emperors, but with the crowning of Haile Selassie I they were seen as evidence that supported his divine status.

Lineage

Many Rastafarians trace Haile Selassie's lineage back to King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. They believe that the Queen of Sheba's visit to King Solomon found in the Book of Kings (1 Kings 10:1-13) provides further proof of the divinity of Haile Selassie I.

Rastafarians believe that King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba had sex during the visit, which led to the conception of a child who was in the same line of descendents as Haile Selassie I.
To many Rastafarians this shows the divine nature of Haile Selassie, as Haile Selassie is therefore related to Solomon's father King David and therefore to Jesus.

Deference

When Haile Selassie I was crowned Emperor, the King of England, who at that time was regarded by many as the most powerful man in the world because of the size of the British Empire, was unable to attend. However, he sent the Duke of Gloucester to represent him.
The Duke of Gloucester bowed to Haile Selassie on meeting him. Many Rastafarians believe that this revealed that the new Ethiopian Emperor was more important than the most important man in the world.

Jamaica is hell; Ethiopia is heaven

Rastafarians regard 'Ethiopia' as their homeland and believe they will eventually return.
During periods of colonisation Africans were divided up and sent to destinations throughout the world, in most cases as slaves to whites. This is why many Africans found themselves in Jamaica and why it is regarded by many Rastafarians as hell.
'Ethiopia', the homeland, was seen as a place of fond memories of freedom and life prior to oppression. This meant it eventually became regarded as heaven. To develop this belief Rastafarians refer to Psalm 137 v. 1:

By the Rivers of Babylon we sat down; there we wept when we remembered Zion.
Psalm 137

The Invincible Emperor of Ethiopia is now arranging for expatriated persons of African origin to return to Ethiopia

Blacks believe that they will be repatriated to Ethiopia, where they will no longer be suppressed, and will live in freedom.
According to most Rastafarians this repatriation will be led by Haile Selassie. They believe their God will take charge and this will result in a joyous re-acquaintance with their homeland.
In practice, while many modern Rastafarians hold Africa in great admiration, they don't want to live there, and are quite content living outside Africa.

The Black person is the reincarnation of ancient Israel, who at the hand of the White person has been in exile in Jamaica.

Rastafarians regard themselves as the genuine Israelites.
They believe they have been persecuted by white people and the form of this punishment is their subordinate position as the slaves of whites. This persecution resulted in their expulsion from 'Ethiopia' to Jamaica, but they believe they will eventually be returned to 'Ethiopia'.
The Rastafari belief that they are the authentic Israelites is mirrored in their adherence to Old Testament laws. Below is the Rastafari ten point moral code, the first two points of which reflect Old Testament laws.
Whilst most Rastafarians take the code literally, others will accept and follow a number of the rules listed but ignore others.

No sharp implements to be used to damage Man, for example no trimming or shaving, no tattooing of the skin or cutting of the flesh.
- As foretold in Leviticus 21:5: "They shall not make baldness upon their heads, neither shall they shave off the corner of their beard, nor make any cuttings in their flesh."
Vegetarianism: Rastafarians use as little animal flesh as possible. They avoid eating pig flesh, shellfish, scaleless fish or snails, etc.
Worship and recognise no God other than Haile Selassie, and reject pagan beliefs, without disrespecting believers.
Love all mankind, but make one's first love the sons of Ham.
Condemn hate, jealousy, envy, deceit, craftiness, treachery, etc.
Oppose the pleasures of modern day society.
Create a world of one brotherhood.
Be charitable to any afflicted Rastafarian brother, and latterly to any other human, animal, plant, etc.
Adhere to the ancient laws of Ethiopia.
Do not accept aid, titles or possessions that the enemy might impart upon you, in fear. One's main purpose is to uphold Rastafari.

(List taken from Leonard Barrett, The Rastafarians: The Dreadlocks of Jamaica, page 104.)

The White person is inferior to the Black person

This notion emerged largely from Marcus Garvey's theories and ideas in the early development of Rastafari.
For some Rastafarians it remains a strongly held belief, whereas others do not take it literally.
Today there is an increasing number of White Rastafarians so beliefs like this are no longer taken so literally.
Leonard Barrett says that Rastafarians who still stand by this belief are not anti-white, although whites are regarded as persecutors by many Rastafarians.
Rastafarians do not consider all white people to be evil.

In the near future Blacks shall rule the world

Many Rastafarians believe that following their repatriation to Africa black people will become rulers of the world, resulting in the suppression of whites. Early Rastafarians may even have claimed that whites would eventually be destroyed.
For Rastafarians this period will mark the beginning of a new world, in which Blacks are respected. Many Rastafarians believe this is how the world would have been, but for the behaviour of corrupt whites.
Modern developments mean that many Rastafarians now dispute this belief and promote the multi-racial appeal of Rastafari.

The role of women in Rastafari

Rastafari has certain rules that apply only to women.
Whilst early Rastafarians probably followed these rules strictly, women tend to have more freedom in modern Rastafarian society.

Women are known as Queens
The main role of women is to look after their King
Women are regarded as subordinate to men
Women are regarded as housekeepers and child bearers
Women must not commit infidelity
Women are not called to Rastafari except through their husbands
Women cannot be leaders
Men are the spiritual head of the family
Women must not cook for their husbands when menstruating
Women must not wear makeup, dress in promiscuous clothing, or use chemicals in their hair
Women must not use birth control, as it is regarded as a European tactic to suppress the development of the African population. This builds on the Old Testament prophecy that 'The seeds of Israel shall be numberless'
Women must also abstain from abortion which is regarded as murder
Women must cover their hair to pray, in keeping with the Biblical teaching in 1 Corinthians 11:5: "And any woman who prays or proclaims God's message in public worship with nothing on her head disgraces her husband..."

Worship

Rastafari doesn't have a specific religious building that is set aside for worship. Rastafarians usually meet weekly, either in a believer's home or in a community centre.
The meetings are referred to as Reasoning sessions. They provide a time for chants, prayers and singing, and for communal issues to be discussed. Marijuana may be smoked to produce heightened spiritual states.
The music used at these meetings is known as Nyabingi, and so when meetings are mostly musical they are often referred to as Nyabingi meetings.
Meetings may also include large feasts.

Marijuana

Marijuana plants in a greenhouse
Marijuana is regarded as a herb of religious significance. It is used in Rastafari reasoning sessions, which are communal meetings involving meditation.
According to Leonard Barrett, Rastafarians first began using Marijuana in reaction to the treatment of blacks in society. It became a reactionary device to enable freedom from the establishment. (Leonard Barrett, The Rastafarians, The Dreadlocks of Jamaica p. 129)
Marijuana is used by Rastafarians to heighten feelings of community and to produce visions of a religious and calming nature.
Rastafarians are unlikely to refer to the substance as marijuana; they usually describe it as the wisdom weed or the holy herb.
The latter name is used because Rastafarians believe that marijuana use is sacred, following biblical texts justifying its use:

He causeth the grass for the cattle, and herb for the services of man.
Psalm 104:14

...thou shalt eat the herb of the field.
Genesis 3.18

...eat every herb of the land.
Exodus 10:12

Better is a dinner of herb where love is, than a stalled ox and hatred therewith.
Proverbs 15:17

The use of marijuana is a highly ritualised act, and before it is used a prayer is uttered by all:

Glory be to the father and to the maker of creation. As it was in the beginning is now and ever shall be World without end: Jah Rastafari: Eternal God Selassie I.

The marijuana is rolled into a cigarette or placed into a chillum pipe. When smoked it is inhaled deeply, then held, as the devotee enters into a trance-like state.

Dreadlocks

Rastafarians can often be recognised from the way they style their hair. Rastafarians grow their hair long, before coiling it into dreadlocks.
The wearing of hair in dreadlocks by Rastafarians is believed to be spiritual; this is justified in the Bible:

They shall not make baldness upon their head.
Leviticus 21:5

Food laws

Rastafarians eat strictly I-tal which means natural and clean
Early Rastafarians are unlikely to eat meat, scavengers or shellfish
Rastafarians do not eat pork
Rastafarians regularly eat fish, but will not eat fish more than twelve inches long
Rastafarians eat copious amounts of vegetables, as they are of the earth, and therefore good
Food is prepared without salt, and coconut oil is the most likely form of oil to be utilised
Rastafarians do not drink alcohol
They do not drink milk or coffee, but will drink anything herbal, grown from natural roots, e.g. herbal tea
Rastafarians consume plentiful amounts of fruit and fruit juice

Rastafarian music - Nyabingi

The traditional music of the Rastafarian religion is Nyabingi.
Nyabingi music is used during reasoning sessions and consists of chanting and drumming to reach states of heightened spirituality.
The chants contain ideas of black redemption and repatriation. They help people to participate and feel included in the Rastafarian community.
Nyabingi music consists of a blend of 19th century gospel music and African drumming.
A Rastafarian man drumming at a reasoning session

19th century gospel music

The music of early Rastafarians was not specific to their religion alone. Early Rastafarians used music and hymns created by Sankey and Moody, two very influential 19th Century American evangelists who travelled throughout the world. The Rastafarians took such hymn tunes and set them to their own words, usually reflecting the importance of Africa.

African drumming

An early African musical influence was Burru Music. This type of music was sung by African slaves to keep their spirits up whilst working. As the slaves had no religion and the Rastafarians had no music, it seemed natural for the Rastafarians to adopt Burru music, while welcoming slaves as new converts into their religion.

Spread and development of Rastafarian music

In the 1950s, Count Ossie began using drumming during reasoning sessions. He realised that this drumming intensified the spiritual effects and heightened people's sensations.
Count Ossie began developing rhythmic patterns that spread throughout the Rastafarian community. Count Ossie played this music publicly, resulting in the spread of the Rastafarian message.
This type of music requires the use of three types of drum: the bass, fundeh and peta (repeater).

Reggae

In the last thirty years Rastafari has become commonly associated with Reggae music, especially following the worldwide success of Robert Nesta Marley.
Bob Marley
Bob Marley, as he was commonly known, helped spread awareness of the religion among outsiders through his appearances and his lyrics.
Many people believe that Bob Marley was the main factor in the spread of Rastafari to the USA, Canada, most of Europe, Africa and Australasia.
His lyrics were influential in the spread of political and social ideas of the Rastafarian movement. He spoke out against the inequality experienced by the black community and the negativity they were subjected to.
Marley's lyrics expanded the Rastafarian teachings:

We are sick and tired of your ism-schism game, to die and go to heaven in Jesus' name. We know and understand almighty God is a living man.
Bob Marley, Get Up, Stand Up, Tuff Going Music, 1973

These lyrics re-state the Rastafarian teaching of the suppression of blacks by whites, and the understanding that Haile Selassie is the Living God who will eventually redeem the Rastafarian community.

We know where we're going, we know where we're from. We're leaving Babylon, going to our Father's land.
Bob Marley, Exodus, Music BVI/Rondor Music, 1977

This refers to the repatriation themes of Rastafari and the return, from Babylon and its suppressors, to the promised land of Africa.

Rastafarian history

The history of Rastafari begins with the colonisation of Africa, or 'Ethiopia' as it is known to believers, by Europeans.
The European powers took many Africans as slaves, and the people of Africa were divided up and sent into exile as captives throughout the world. The areas of captivity became known as 'Babylon'.
For Africans this exile marked the suppression of their culture by whites. However, Rastafarians believe that the suppression of blacks in Babylon is ending and that soon they will all return to 'Ethiopia'.

1930s

The Rastafari movement began in Jamaica during the 1930s following a prophecy made by Marcus Garvey, a black political leader. Garvey led an organisation known as the Universal Negro Improvement Association, whose intention was to unify blacks with their land of origin.
Garvey preached "Look to Africa where a black king shall be crowned, he shall be your Redeemer." This statement became the foundation of the Rastafari movement.
The prophecy was rapidly followed by the crowning of Emperor Haile Selassie I in Ethiopia. Rastafarians see this as the fulfilment of Garvey's prophecy. The religion takes its name from Haile Selassie's original name.
Haile Selassie is therefore regarded by Rastafarians as the Black Messiah, Jah Rastafari. He is a figure of salvation and it's believed he will redeem blacks from white suppressors, reuniting them with their homeland, Africa.

1935

The first branch of Rastafari is believed to have been established in Jamaica in 1935 by Leonard P. Howell.
Howell preached the divinity of Haile Selassie. He explained that all blacks would gain the superiority over whites that had always been intended for them.
Howell's action encouraged others to help develop and spread the message of Rasta theology, and as E.E. Cashmore explains:

All, in their own ways, added pieces to the jigsaw, and the whole picture came together in the mid 1950s when a series of congregations of rastas appeared at various departure points on Jamaica's shores, awaiting ships bound for Africa.
E.E. Cashmore

This marked the first uniting of Rastafarians and it paved the way for the future of the movement, bringing hope of repatriation with Africa and freedom for the black race.

1960s and 70s

In 1966 Haile Selassie visited Jamaica, where he was greeted with vast enthusiasm.
The development of Reggae music during this period made Rastafari audible and visible to an international audience. The work of Bob Marley (one of the most important figures in Rastafari) and Island Records was popular with a much wider group than the working class Jamaican culture from which it sprang.
As the rock critics Stephen Davis and Peter Simon said, reggae propelled "the Rasta cosmology into the middle of the planet's cultural arenas, and suddenly people want to know what all the chanting and praying and obsessive smoking of herb [marijuana] are all about" (Reggae Bloodlines).
Some traditional Rastafarians were disturbed by the popularity of reggae, fearing that the faith would be commercialised or taken up as a cultural fad, rather than a religion.
In 1974 Haile Selassie was deposed by a Marxist revolution. He died mysteriously the next year. The removal of a divine figure by an atheist secular political group was initially discouraging to Rastafarians, and undermined any suggestion that he had been anything more than a human representation of God.

An audio history of Rastafari

In this audio history Benjamin Zephaniah, the poet and playwright, visits Rastafarian communities in the Jamaican hills and journeys through its history from its earliest days in the slums of Spanish Town and Kingston, to modern day London and Birmingham.
Benjamin travels to Africa to visit the Rastafarian community in Shashamane, Ethiopia, where Jamaicans have settled in an attempt to return to their roots and the land of Emperor Haile Selassie.
There are stories of the forgotten founders of the religion, Alexander Bedward, Leonard Howell, Robert Hinds and Prince Emmanel Edwards and their battles with the British authorities; how Rasta became a movement of resistance in the 1960s both in the Caribbean and amongst Britain's black community, and how even white people have taken up Rastafarianism - including a New Zealand Rasta MP and a Japanese Rasta in Tokyo.

Rastafari and slavery

Rastafari was born out of exploitation and slavery. Picture: Dan Rizzuto ©

The movement [Rastafari] views Ethiopia as the promised land, the place where Black people will be repatriated through a wholesale exodus from all Western countries where they have been in exile (slavery).
Leonard E. Barrett Sr, The Rastafarians, 1997

Rastafari is a religion born in Jamaica, a country whose society and culture for the last four centuries has been substantially formed by the slave trade.

Rastafari is a revolutionary cultural reaction to the colonialism, down-pression, slavery, and persistent poverty that has marked Jamaica's past and present.
Christopher A. Hagelin, The Rastafari of Jamaica (lecture)

One of the fundamental themes of Rastafari is that of repatriation; return to Africa, and particularly to Ethiopia - 'Zion' - the spiritual ideal of Rastafari.

The Rastafari ever since the movement's rise in the early 1930s have held to the belief that they and all Africans in the diaspora are but exiles in 'Babylon,' destined to be delivered out of captivity by a return to 'Zion,' that is, Africa... Repatriation is one of the cornerstones of Rastafari belief.
Barry Chevannes, Rastafari: Roots and Ideology, 1994

Slavery is part of Rastafari in several ways:

Rastafari is a religion born out of exploitation and slavery
- Rastafari came into existence amongst the descendants of former enslaved Africans in Jamaica
Rastafari is a religion of people living in oppression and 'exile' as the result of enslavement
- The term 'Babylon' explicitly links the exile and slavery of Africans with the exile and slavery of the Jews in Babylon. ('Babylon' has now developed into a term for any form of oppression, or any oppressive mechanism in society)
- Rastafari offers a Black Redeemer for the exiled enslaved
- Rastafari provides a foundation for religious 'nationalism'
- Rastafari provides a religious context for black people separated from their roots
- Rastafari provides a vision of a 'promised land' for all black people
- Rastafari is a rock of black pride in the face of 'expressions of white superiority'
Rastafari, for some adherents, is a religion of resistance and struggle against all oppression
- Resistance to historical slavery is now replaced by resistance to poverty, exploitation and racism
Rastafari is partly a response to Christianity, the religion of the 'oppressors', and to being excluded from Christianity
Major themes include
- hope of repatriation to Africa - although nowadays this is seen as a spiritual repatriation rather than a literal one
- defending the poor and oppressed
Slavery is often used as a subject in reggae music
The colours of the Rastafari flag reflect slavery; as the British reggae band Steel Pulse put it in the song Rally Round:

Rally round the flag,
Rally round the red, gold, black and green.
Marcus say, 'Red for the blood that flowed like a river.'
Marcus say, 'Green for the land, Africa.'
Marcus say, 'Yellow for the gold that they stole.'
Marcus say, 'Black for the people they looted from.'
Steel Pulse, 'Rally Round', from the album Rastanthology, Wise Man Doctrine

Oppression by slavery

Up to 700,000 enslaved Africans were brought to Jamaica. The slave-owners treated them as less than fully human, an inferior species of humankind; almost as a kind of domestic animal. Within the ranks of the enslaved, status was given by occupation, and by paleness of skin.
The owners didn't just treat the 'slaves' as inferior, they also taught them that Africa itself was an inferior place; a 'dark continent' filled with uncivilised languages, cultures and customs. In this they reflected the activity of the Christian churches in sending missionaries to Africa to bring civilisation and salvation to its inhabitants.

Religious repression

The slave-owners not only tried to prevent the enslaved practicing their African religions, but also barred them from practising Christianity.
Christianity not only had some notions of human equality that were uncomfortable for Christian slave-owners, but was 'clearly supposed to be reserved for whites' and not shared with their 'inferiors'. Not all Christians agreed with this and some non-conformist ministers did great work among the enslaved Africans, to the dismay of both the slave-owners and the Anglican Church.
The enslaved Africans nonetheless retained as much of their old faith as they could, in an undercover way.

Reggae and slavery

Reggae's influence and popularity both within and outside Jamaica reflects its 'third-world origins'. In particular, reggae's roots are embedded in the historical conditions of Jamaican slavery and colonialism.
Barry T. Bays, P. Renée Foster, Stephen A. King; Reggae, Rastafari and the Rhetoric of Social Control; 2002

In a sense, Jamaican people were born into a world of suffering because of slavery, and the vitality of music as a healing, uplifting part of life was born with them. The emotional effects that slavery has had on Jamaicans was heard in the music of that time and is still heard in the music of today.
Andy Tower, The Painful Path of Music - Slavery and Suffering in Jamaica and their effects on Jamaican Music, 1998

Now I think of reggae music as a form of verbal history. I pay attention to the lyrics of the songs because I now know that the artists are trying to tell me something. When I listen to reggae music, I feel strong. I use reggae music as a way to feel empowered. If the slaves of Jamaica overcame all that they did, I can do anything. That, I believe, is the message of reggae music.
Sarah Novick, The Effects of Slavery on Reggae Music

Reggae songs are often commentaries on social conditions, particularly in Jamaica.
Steel Pulse
Since the majority of Jamaicans are the descendants of enslaved Africans it's unsurprising that a number of reggae lyrics deal with the historical and social upheaval of slavery.
Some songs look back at past brutality and exploitation, some sing of the lost homeland in Africa and of hopes for repatriation.
Other songs celebrate Marcus Garvey and his philosophy of the return to Africa, while others deal with the political implications of that philosophy and of slavery for the present day.
The examples below are only some of the many reggae lyrics based on slavery. British reggae bands included in this list are Aswad, from London, and Steel Pulse from Birmingham.
Slavery came and took its toll
In the name of John Bull Dog
Said we turned our backs on God
Lost the powers that we had
As our back's agains' the wall
Ask ourselves about the fall
Rise Rise Rise
Hold onto your culture
Steel Pulse, Not King James Version
And when slave master beat I with the whip
And he made I jump and twist
We use that music to cool us down I say
You couldn't give up now
You know you couldn't give up now
Couldn't give up now
Aswad, Drum and Bass Line
Today they say that we are free
Only to be chained in poverty
Ev'ry time I hear a crack of the whip
My blood runs cold
I remember on the slave ship
How they brutalised our very souls
Bob Marley, Slave Driver, from the album Catch a Fire
Old pirates, yes, they rob I;
Sold I to the merchant ships,
Minutes after they took I
From the bottomless pit.
But my hand was made strong
By the 'and of the Almighty.
We forward in this generation
Triumphantly.
Won't you help to sing
These songs of freedom? -
'Cause all I ever have:
Redemption songs;
Redemption songs.
Bob Marley, Redemption Song, from the album Legend
Do you remember the days of slav'ry? (Do you remember the days of slav'ry?)
And they beat us (Do you remember the days of slav'ry?)
And they worked us so hard (Do you remember the days of slav'ry?)
And they used us (Do you remember the days of slav'ry?)
Till they refuse us (Do you remember the days of slav'ry?)
Do you remember the days of slav'ry? (Do you remember the days of slav'ry?)
Look, oh Lord, they brought us down here
Have us in bondage, right through these years
Fussing and fighting, among ourselves
Nothing to achieve this way, it's worser than hell, I say

Get up and fight for your rights my brothers
Get up and fight for your rights my sisters

Took us away from civilization
Brought us to slave in this big plantation
Fussing and fighting, among ourselves
Nothing to achieve this way, it's worser than hell, I say
Abyssinians, Declaration of Rights (Bernard Collins), from the album Satta Massagana

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Bob Marley

One of the few major faces of minority religious sects, Robert Nesta Marley, has become the face of reggae and of Rastafari. His own brand of African rock and reggae music reached out to people all over the world, and had great impact on the religious movement as a whole.Bob Marley was born in 1945 to a white middle class father and a black mother, in Jamaica. He left home at 14 years old to pursue a music career in Kingston. This was his first experience of Rastafari, becoming a pupil of local singer and devout Rastafarian, Joe Higgs.After creating the highly successful Jamaican reggae group, 'Wailers', Marley's national fame seemed set. His marriage to Rita Anderson, a devout Rastafarian, in 1964, further increased his interest in the religion and his music reflected this.Catch a Fire was the first of the Wailers' albums released outside of Jamaica, and immediately earned worldwide acclaim. His two co-stars, Livingstone and Tosh, left the group because of increased tour demands and Marley had to form a new line-up. The new name, the I-Threes, consisted of three female singers, including his wife, Rita. Sellout shows followed in London and America.Graffiti in Barcelona showing Bob Marley's face As famous as he was outside Jamaica, within his home country he was viewed as a prophet and a poet. The message of Rastafarian politics and theology in his songs was never diluted, and for the Jamaicans, to whom the religion was particularly targeted, his songs had additional meaning.His most successful year, 1980, was kicked off by a concert in the newly independent Zimbabwe, and a tour of the US was planned. But just a year later he collapsed while jogging in New York's Central Park. He had a recurring cancer which had spread to his brain, lungs and liver. He died later in hospital, aged 36.Marcus GarveyMarcus Garvey Rastafari has its roots in the philosophy of Marcus Garvey.
Marcus Mosiah Garvey was born on the 17th of August 1887, in Jamaica. His teachings of black self empowerment are credited as being the sources behind the founding of the religion.Although Marcus Garvey never actually followed Rastafari or believed in it, he is considered to be one of the religion's prophets, because it was his ideologies that eventually grew into Rastafari.He believed that all black people should return to their rightful homeland Africa, and was heavily involved in promoting the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) which he founded in 1914.In the 1920s Garvey organised the black nationalist movement in America. A year later he had almost one million followers.The black nationalist leader became an inspiration to black people all over the world and although he taught people to be proud of their race, he also offended other black leaders with his ideas of separatism within races.Garvey's powerful speeches ("Up you mighty race, you can accomplish what you will!") gained him numerous supporters.Many people believe that what Marcus Garvey said in 1920, ("Look to Africa, when a black king shall be crowned, for the day of deliverance is at hand"), came true in 1930, when Ras Tafari Makonnen was crowned the new Emperor of Ethiopia, and became known as Emperor Haile Selassie.It is after the crowning of Selassie that the Rastafarian movement officially began.BirthWhen a child is born into the Rastafari tradition he or she is blessed by elders in the community, during a Nyabingi session of drumming, chanting and prayer.MarriageIn Rastafari there is no formal marriage structure. A Rastafari man and woman who live together are regarded as husband and wife (unless, of course, they are related in some other way, such as mother and son).If marriage does take place it is regarded as a social occasion rather than a religious event.DeathIn Rastafari there is no funeral ceremony to mark the end of life.Rastafarians believe that reincarnation follows death, and that life is eternal.Bobo Shanti (Bobo Shanti Congress or Ethiopia Black International Congress)

The Bobo Shanti movement was founded in 1958 in Jamaica, by Prince Emmanuel Charles Edwards, considered by many to be the black Christ.

Prince Emmanuel, Marcus Garvey and Haile Selassie are regarded as part of a holy trinity. Selassie is regarded as King or God, Garvey is perceived to be a prophet and Emmanuel a High Priest.

The group can now be found in the Bahamas, Virgin Islands, Ghana, Nigeria, Ethiopia and Trinidad.

Bobo Shanti wear brightly coloured turbans and long flowing robes.

Women in Bobo Shanti must cover their arms and legs.

Bobo Shanti members live apart from society. Their base is in Bull Bay, Jamaica.

They do not accept the laws and principles of Jamaican society.

Elements of their daily life reflect Old Testament Jewish Mosaic Law:

Honouring the Sabbath, from sundown on Friday.

During the Sabbath the use of salt and oil is avoided and no work can be carried out.

Special rules for menstruating women.

Special group greetings.

In the Bobo Shanti community men conduct religious gatherings, and are referred to as Priests.

Bobo Shanti fast twice a week and on the first day of every month.

The word Bobo means black. Ashanti was the name of an African tribe from Kumasi in Ghana.

Bobo Shanti fly their flag in a different way to other Rasta groups. They fly the Red, Gold and Green flag with Red at the top, while other groups fly it the other way up.

The Bobo Shanti do smoke marijuana, but not in public, because it is a spiritual rite only to be carried out during periods of worship.

The Bobo Shanti movement is concerned with fulfilling Marcus Garvey's 'Back to Africa' campaign, reuniting Africans with their homeland and abandoning contact with Western society. Some Bobo Shanti feel black people should be given monetary rewards for the slavery they have endured.

Twelve Tribes of Israel

This group was founded in 1968 in Jamaica by Dr. Vernon Carrington.

Carrington is also referred to as 'the Prophet Gad'. This name is used because Carrington claimed that he was the reincarnation of Gad. Gad had been one of the original sons of Israel, and Carrington felt his role was to reunite the Ten Lost Tribes.

Carrington is regarded as the angel discussed in Revelation 7:2. "And I saw another angel coming up from the east with the seal of the living God. He called out in a loud voice to the four angels to whom God had given the power to damage the earth and the sea."

Carrington is central to the movement, although he has a number of 'shepherds' to work beneath him, enabling the development and understanding of the group.

Twelve Tribes of Israel is considered the most liberal of the Rastafarian groups.

Unlike the Bobo Shanti and the Nyahbinghi, the Twelve Tribes believes in the salvation not only of blacks but of all races.

Members of the Twelve Tribes can practice their religion in church or from their homes.

The group believe themselves to be descendants of the Twelve Sons of Israel.

The group exists outside Jamaica in places such as the United States of America, New Zealand, Europe and Africa.

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